Is OIL a Resource Curse Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Is OIL a Resource Curse - Essay Example This is because the citizens are unable to account on the spending of the money derived from exporting oil. Additionally, the resource leads to unprecedented rate of conflict. In fact, the wealth of resources in any country appears to correlate with conflict. This is because government relies on resources and delinks itself from people. This arises due to lack of accountability that could have been achieved by taxing. However, such governments do not need to tax its people as oil generates enough resources to run the government. This makes the government unaccountable to its people. However, there are ways in which some of the government are solving the resource curse. This involves use of some of the resources generated to offer incentives to the citizens. Moreover, the money is also channelled to social welfare to cater for the aged and less privileged in the society. In addition, some governments have focused on ensuring there is accountability in the sector. This takes place through offering information about the nation revenue and expenditure (Stapleton n.d). Additionally, other governments are in the process of developing legislation to address transparency in the oil sector. All these initiatives are believed to offer solutions to resource curse

Importance of Education Essay Example for Free

Importance of Education Essay The Importance of Education: What is the right way to educate? Our society has forgotten that the reason schools exist is to create minds not careers. Education plays a critical role in the development of our humanity. What is the appropriate approach to educate our students in order for them to succeed? Motivation is their key to success quite simply. A teacher humiliating a student in front of their classmates can lead to a negative impact in the student’s lifetime such as: becoming unsocial and causing them a mental discomfort in which in turn could lead to something far more sinister. In the article The Differences Between us: French and American Classrooms mentions a French film The Class, in which a teacher makes fun of his students after they respond incorrectly to a question. â€Å"When they too fail, he in turn ridicules them. Later, losing his temper at two students, he labels them what roughly translates as bitches† (Gillard). This teacher is unaware of the impact his remarks may have on the students being insulted. The students are being emotionally and verbally abused. The first five minutes on her first day she was mortified to tears by a teacher outraged that she had rushed in after the bell while her peers waited beside their desks† (Gillard). Some of the various effects emotional abuse may cause are bringing the students’ self-esteem level down, making them insecure, and therefore developing severe depression. Statistics show that last year’s students have been victims of verbal abuse. â€Å"36. 5 % of youth grades nine through twelve have attempted suicide. 20. % of those attempts resulted in medical care† (compassionpower. com). In the United States we believe in equality among all students. Providing accommodations for those with learning disabilities, this subject is clearly what differentiates the U. S education system from that of other countries. â€Å"Educators rolled their eyes when I asked about in-class accommodations for learning disabilities and individualized education plans† (Gillard). When other countries compare their students to those of the U.  S they should keep in mind they are competing against those with learning disabilities as well. â€Å"I was present for the dictation, given in a first grade class that had three little boys in a state of collapse† (Gillard). Education in France and other nations start children so early in their development and harsh education plan that at such an early stage they to become insecure. The U. S knows there is a need in reforming education. They already have reforms taking place such as the five pillars mentioned by President Obama. Investing in early childhood initiatives like Head Start; encouraging better standards and assessments, by focusing on testing itineraries that better fit our kids and the world they live in; recruiting, preparing, and rewarding outstanding teachers, by giving incentives for a new generation of teachers and for new levels of excellence from all of our teachers. Promoting innovation and excellence in America’s schools by supporting charter schools, reforming the school calendar and the structure of the school day. Providing every American with a quality higher educationwhether its college or technical training (whitehouse. gov). â€Å"Statistics show the percentage of high school dropouts among 16-24 year olds declined from 11. 8 percent in 1998 to 8. 1 percent in 2009† (afterschoolstars. org). Being sociable is fundamental in a career furthermore, in opening greater job opportunities. After school activities have been proven to help reduce the use of drugs, smoking, drinking and engaging in sexual activity. Last but not least, activities help decrease the chances of been overweight. The school ran from 8am to 5pm with a two hour long gaps scattered throughout the schedule. This structure precluded school-wide socializing as well as sponsored afternoon sports or drama activities† (Gillard). The French education plan is misleading their students from their road to success, by engaging them in being unsociable. Countries such as France are already verbally abusing children and making them have issues such as been unsociable that preventing them from taking part of after school activities is just crossing the line. In the book Me Talk Pretty One Day David an American student is studying French in France. He came into class confident in the several words he had learned, until he heard his teacher’s remarks to his classmate’s answers. â€Å"More to the point, how often is one asked and then publicly ridiculed for his answer? † (Sedaris). This French teacher now has not only scared them away but limited the chance of them asking questions in regards to the subject been studied. Asking questions helps a student understand the subject at a greater extend. â€Å"Our daughter described the terror she felt and er peers showed when making presentations in a philosophy class, stuttering in the face of the teachers frequent interruptions of â€Å" unimpressive,† or, â€Å"really? † (Gillard). Making these comments the students learn to feel unconfident in their work and themselves. Other countries should definitely consider reforming the way their teachers educate their students. â€Å"A positive learning climate in a school for young children is a composite of many things. It is an attitude that respects children. It is a place where children receive guidance and encouragement from the responsible adults around them. It is an environment where children can experiment and try out new ideas without fear of failure. It is an atmosphere that builds children self-confidence so that they dare to take risks. It is an environment that nurtures the love of learning,† (quotes. dictionary. com). Teachers should only bring in positive feedback to their students and point out their mistakes to show them where they went wrong. Our society is under so much pressure to succeed. Students need to realize it is ok to be wrong, practice makes perfect. Teachers in other countries need to become more educated to be aware that they are emotionally and verbally scarring students. The U. S equality among students is a subject that should be mimicked by other countries. As our population increases more and more students are becoming victims of this unprofessional â€Å"teachers†. These countries need to stop competing for top scores and focus on the way teachers are applying education to students. The consequences can be life changing. Education should be considered a sacred privilege that all children must have to excel.

Garlic And Abate As Larvicide Against Mosquito Larvae Biology Essay

Garlic And Abate As Larvicide Against Mosquito Larvae Biology Essay This experiment was designed to investigate and compare the effectiveness of garlic as the natural larvicide and Abate as the chemical larvicide against mosquito larvae. The effectiveness of the larvicides was determined by the time taken for all the mosquito larvae to be killed. The mosquito larvae were placed in separate plastic cups containing garlic extract and Abate respectively. They were monitored at fixed time intervals and the time taken for all the mosquito larvae to die was recorded. The experiment was repeated with different concentrations of garlic extract and Abate. A two-way ANOVA statistical test showed that Abate is more effective against mosquito larvae at 5% significance level compared to garlic, corresponding to the experimental hypothesis. Research and Rationale Mosquitoes originate from the family Culicidae.13 Like many other insects, they go through a life cycle from egg to larva, pupa and finally adult. They are generally well-known as blood-sucking insects to human and they are responsible for many fatal diseases such as dengue, malaria and yellow fever. Some commonly known genera are Aedes, Culex and Anopheles. Usually, mosquitoes breed in stagnant water like ponds, marshes and swamps and they thrive in warm climates.9 (210 words) In order to control mosquitoes, chemical larvicides are used. One commonly used larvicide, Abate is applied to stagnant water to kill larvae of a wide range of pathogen-carrying vectors (mosquitoes) to hinder their development into adult mosquitoes.2 Consequently, this prevents disease-carrying mosquitoes from hatching and transmitting the pathogens to human via bites. Although the active ingredient of Abate, temephos is said to be effective against mosquito larvae (affects the nervous system by inhibiting cholinesterase enzyme), it has its downsides. Research has shown that certain mosquito species (Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegypti) have developed resistance for Abate.4 In addition, rats exposed to temephus showed organic phosphorus poisoning while some fish are vulnerable to temephus. Temephus also harm inverterbates such as shrimps and crabs. Accumulation of temephus may also cause drastic impacts on cholinesterase activity involved in nerve signal transmission.6 Plant extracts such as those of garlic are potential alternatives to Abate. Crushing garlic releases thiosulfinates which convert into diallyl disulfide and diallyl trisulfide if mixed with water.10 These two products formed are effective against mosquito larvae. Trials conducted in Bombay have shown that several species of mosquito larvae are susceptible to garlic extracts. Allicin helps to curb malaria by preventing the formation of circumsporozoite protein (CSP) of Plasmodium sporozoites to infect host cells.10 They are effective, safe, environmental-friendly and economical. The objective of this experiment was to investigate and compare the effectiveness of garlic as the natural larvicide and Abate as the chemical larvicide against mosquito larvae. The results from this experiment indicate that the spread of pathogen-causing diseases by mosquitoes can be curbed by using natural substances such as garlic as well as chemical larvicide like Abate. Garlic is a potential alternative to Abate as it is effective, easily available and eco-friendly. Although it might not be as fast-acting as chemical larvicides, garlic has none of the downsides of Abate such as accumulating in the environment and killing other invertebrates. Thus, more research is being conducted to investigate the efficiency of garlic as a larvicide. (545 words) Experimental hypothesis There is a significant difference between the effectiveness of garlic and Abate as larvicide. Abate is more effective larvicide compared to garlic. Null hypothesis There is no significant difference between the effectiveness of garlic and Abate as larvicide. Variables Manipulated variable : Types of substances Responding variable : Time taken for all the larvae to die Fixed variables : Number of mosquito larvae, volume of distilled water, room temperature Apparatus 100mL measuring cylinder, electronic balance, plastic cups, label stickers, pestle and mortar, disposable droppers, glass rod Materials Mosquito larvae, garlic cloves, cinnamon powder, fennel powder, Abate 1.1G, distilled water Planning A trial experiment was conducted to determine which natural substance has the most significant effect on mosquito larvae. The three natural substances used were cinnamon powder, fennel power and garlic cloves. Three labelled plastic cups were used. About 1% of each respective natural substance extracts were made by either dissolving 1g of the powder in 100mL of distilled water or pounding 1g of garlic and then mix with 100mL distilled water. Using a disposable dropper, 5 mosquito larvae were inserted into each cup and they were allowed to sit for 24 hours. The number of mosquito larvae left after 24 hours was counted. (750 words) Types of natural substances Number of mosquito larvae left after 24 hours Cinnamon 3 Fennel 5 Garlic 0 Table 1: Number of mosquito larvae left after 24 hours with respect to natural substances The results imply that garlic showed the most significant effect on mosquito larvae since none of the mosquito larvae was left after 24 hours. A second trial was carried out to determine the method to measure the effectiveness of garlic and Abate. The first method was to count the number of mosquito larvae left after 24 hours while the second was to measure the time taken for all larvae to die. Three concentrations were used for each substance and method. Substance Number of mosquito larvae left after 24 hours for each concentration 1% 2% 3% Garlic 0 0 0 Abate 0 0 0 Table 2: Calculating the number of mosquito larvae left after 24 hours Substance Time taken for all larvae to die for each concentration (minutes) 1% 2% 3% Garlic 420 360 120 Abate 90 75 55 Table 3: Measuring the time taken for all larvae to die The results showed that method 1 was not practical to use since no mosquito larvae is left after 24 hours for both garlic and Abate. Therefore, method 2, which is to measure the time taken for all larvae to die, was used to compare the effectiveness of both substances as larvicides. (983 words) Real Experimental Procedures 1g of garlic clove was weighed using an electronic balance. The garlic clove was placed in a mortar and it was pounded lightly using the pestle to obtain garlic extract. 100mL distilled water was measured using a measuring cylinder and it was poured into the mortar to form an extract solution of concentration 1%. The solution was then transferred into a labelled plastic cup. Using a disposable dropper, five mosquito larvae were transferred into the beaker. At 5-minutes interval, the number of dead mosquito larvae in the beaker was counted and recorded to measure the time taken for all larvae to die. Dead larvae are those that cannot be induced to move when they are touched with the tip of the dropper. Steps 1 to 6 are repeated twice to obtain an average time taken. Steps 1 to 7 are repeated for garlic cloves of 2g, 3g 4g and 5g. The time taken for all larvae to die for each respective garlic concentration was tabulated. Steps 1 to 9 were repeated using 1g, 2g, 3g, 4g and 5g of Abate 1.1. A graph of mean time taken for all larvae to die against concentration of larvicides was plotted. A two-way ANOVA test was used to analyse the data statistically. Risk Assessment The experimental procedure is ranked low-risk. The risk of accidental introduction of mosquito into the environment had been considered and precautions were taken to ensure that pupae which had developed into mosquitoes were not released, but killed in the water. The container containing larvae were closed at all time. Gloves were worn to avoid direct contact with Abate which is toxic. Hands were washed before and after handling garlic extract, Abate and mosquito larvae. After using droppers, they were disposed properly. When the experiment had completed, the solution containing dead mosquito larvae were drained into the laboratory sink. (1307 words) Results Concentrations (%) Time taken for all mosquito larvae to die (minutes) Garlic Abate1.1G 1 2 3 Mean 1 2 3 Mean 1 360 345 370 358.3 90 85 90 88.3 2 300 310 300 303.3 75 75 70 73.3 3 120 115 120 118.3 55 50 60 55.0 4 100 90 110 100.0 45 40 40 41.7 5 80 80 70 76.7 30 35 35 33.3 Table 4: Time taken for all larvae to die for different concentrations of garlic and Abate Figure 1: Graph of mean time taken for mosquito larvae to die with respect to concentrations of larvicides (1409 words) Statistical Analysis Two-way ANOVA test was used to analyse the data to show whether there is a significant difference between the two larvicides. The Columns P-Value (8.58E-24) is less than the significance level (ÃŽ ± = 0.05). There is a significance difference between the larvicidal properties of Abate and garlic. Abate is a stronger larvicide than garlic. Therefore, the experimental hypothesis is accepted and the null hypothesis is rejected. From the analysis also, the calculated Sample P-value (3.62E-22) is less than the significance level tested as well (ÃŽ ± = 0.05). This shows that there are statistically significant differences between different concentrations of garlic and Abate. The Interaction P-Value (3.01E-19) indicates that there was a statistical significant interaction between the larvicides and the concentrations used. Higher concentrations of both larvicides are more effective against the mosquito larvae compared to lower concentrations. (1548 words) Substances Garlic Abate Total 0.01 Count 3 3 6 Sum 1075 265 1340 Average 358.3333 88.33333 223.3333 Variance 158.3333 8.333333 21936.67 0.02 Count 3 3 6 Sum 910 220 1130 Average 303.3333 73.33333 188.3333 Variance 33.33333 8.333333 15886.67 0.03 Count 3 3 6 Sum 355 165 520 Average 118.3333 55 86.66667 Variance 8.333333 25 1216.667 0.04 Count 3 3 6 Sum 300 125 425 Average 100 41.66667 70.83333 Variance 100 8.333333 1064.167 0.05 Count 3 3 6 Sum 230 100 330 Average 76.66667 33.33333 55 Variance 33.33333 8.333333 580 Total Count 15 15 Sum 2870 875 Average 191.3333 58.33333 Variance 14458.81 445.2381 Table 5: Summary of the data (1656 words) Source of Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit Sample 137903.3 4 34475.83 880.234 3.62E-22 2.866081 Columns 132667.5 1 132667.5 3387.255 8.58E-24 4.351243 Interaction 69970 4 17492.5 446.617 3.01E-19 2.866081 Within 783.3333 20 39.16667 Total 341324.2 29 Table 6: Calculations for two-way Anova test (1701 words) Data Analysis The two-way ANOVA test revealed that Abate is a stronger larvicide than garlic. The Columns P-value is less than the significance value (ÃŽ ± = 0.05), which indicated that Abate and garlic are significantly different in terms of larvicidal properties. This supports the experimental hypothesis that the effectiveness of Abate is greater than that of garlic. Table 4 shows that for all Abate concentrations, the mean time taken for all the mosquito larvae to die are shorter compared to that of garlic. For both larvicides, as their concentrations increased, the mean time decreased. From the data in Table 4, it can be evaluated that there is a bigger percentage difference in the mean time taken between garlic and Abate for the first two concentrations (about 75%). For 3%, 4% and 5% concentrations, the percentage differences in mean time range from 54% to 58%. This is illustrated in Figure 1. It clearly suggested that Abate is much more effective than garlic. Abate is a chemical larvicide while garlic is a natural larvicide. Both contain the active substances which are capable to kill mosquito larvae. Within 24 hours, all mosquito larvae would have died in Abate as well as garlic solutions. It was therefore not practical to calculate the number of live mosquito larvae after 24 hours. Hence, the time taken for the mosquito larvae to die was used as a measure of the substances effectiveness. The shorter the time taken, the more effective the compound is. Dead larvae can be identified by touching them with the tip of a rod or dropper. They cannot be induced to move. Abate contains temephos which is an organophosphate compound.11 It is able to inhibit acetylcholinesterase enzyme which is required to stop a nerve impulse after it has crossed the synapse. As a result, there is a continuous stimulation of the nerve, resulting in tremors and uncoordinated movement.11 Garlic, when crushed and mixed with water, will convert thiosulfinates to diallyl disulfide and diallyl trisulfide,10 both which are organosulfur compounds. They are effective against mosquito larvae. (2043 words) The experiment showed that Abate is a more effective larvicide compared to garlic. Both organophosphorus and organosulfur compounds worked against mosquito larvae. This explains that during the trial experiment, after allowing both solutions to sit for 24 hours, all mosquito larvae died. Nevertheless, the experimental results showed that Abate which contains organophosphorus compounds took a shorter time to kill all the mosquito larvae compared to garlic (organosulfur compound), implying that organophosphorus compounds are more effective against mosquito larvae. However, this may also be due to the purity of the active substances. The industrially-produced Abate contain pure temephos, whereas allicin found in garlic is impure. For an active ingredient to work effectively, it has to be extracted and processed to give optimum results. Although results showed that Abate is a more effective larvicide, it should be noted that Abate is harmful to certain animals such as mice and fish, as well as to some invertebrates. Abate is also liable to accumulate within the natural environment, posing risks to human health. Garlic is an option to replace Abate as it is easily obtainable, cheap and does not pose harm to the environment. Nevertheless, garlic takes a longer time to kill mosquito larvae compared to Abate. Time is a crucial factor when dealing with disease-carrying mosquitoes such as Aedes aegypti. Therefore, although garlic might be effective against mosquito larvae, it may not be practical to use such a time-consuming substance to alleviate the problem with mosquito larvae. (2287 words) Evaluation To increase the accuracy, the base of the garlic, together with its skin was removed before the garlic cloves were weighed using an electronic balance. The garlic cloves were pounded lightly using a mortar and pestle to prevent heat from destroying the chemical contents of garlic, which might decrease the effectiveness of garlic. Disposable droppers were used to avoid contamination of substances being tested and in the container used to collect mosquito larvae. Besides, plastic cups were used instead of laboratory glassware in order to prevent contamination as well. Each cup was closed with a perforated cover to ensure that air flows into the cup. The cup was covered as a precaution to prevent the introduction of any mosquito into the environment in case any larvae managed to complete its life cycle. Results from the trials showed that all mosquito larvae were killed by the larvicides within 24 hours. Therefore, if the number of live mosquito larvae were noted after 24 hours, there would not be any significant differences. As an alternative, the time taken for the mosquito larvae to be killed was measured. It was also impossible to run a stopwatch to measure the time as it would be difficult to estimate when to stop it. Instead, the mosquito larvae were observed every five minutes and any dead larva was noted. Hence, the time measured was estimation as it would be hard to check on the larvae every minute for hours. To increase the precision of results, the experiment was repeated twice to obtain an average time. It was also impossible to differentiate the types of mosquito larvae. Different larvae species might have different response towards larvicide. However, in this experiment, they were assumed to be of the same species. The larvae were also of different days old. Larvicides might have different effects on larvae of different days old. Besides, the solutions might not contain the exact concentration which was supposed to be tested. This is because garlic juice might not be able to be extracted and dissolve in distilled water completely. Abate granules also did not dissolve completely in distilled water. (2641 words) An ethical issue that may be questioned is the accidental introduction of mosquitoes into the environment. In this experiment, mosquito larvae are collected from ponds, which are mosquito breeding grounds. These mosquito larvae are actually prevented from turning into adult mosquitoes, which may transmit certain diseases. Larvae collected are placed in a covered container and are monitored to prevent accidental introduction of mosquitoes in case any larva managed to complete its life cycle. This investigation could be modified by grinding the garlic cloves and dissolve it in ethanol to form garlic solution of a particular concentration. This would increase the reliability of the results. Besides, mosquito larvae of the same species could be used to ensure that the effects of larvicides on that particular type of mosquito larvae only are determined. This reduces the probability of results occurring by chance. Mosquito larvae of a specific species could be cultured rather than collecting them from a pond. The number of mosquito larvae could also have been increased to obtain a more reliable result. Conclusion Chemical larvicide, Abate is significantly more effective than garlic in killing mosquito larvae. This was determined by the notably shorter time taken by Abate to kill all the mosquito larvae than shown by garlic. (2848 words) Source Evaluation Source 2 contains information on agricultural products such as vector control by BASF, the worlds leading chemical company and a corporate group. Hence, it is trustable and reliable. Source 4 is a journal, so contains sound scientific information. It contains a research note written by authors from several research universities. Therefore, it should be trustable and reliable. Source 6 is a data sheet on temephos, the active ingredient in Abate. The data sheet is provided by IPCS INCHEM, cooperation between International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) and the Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCHOS). IPCS INCHEM compiles information regarding management of chemicals and their risks based on data from World Health Organization (WHO) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Therefore, this source is reliable and not biased. Sources 8 and 13 are published books. Therefore, they are credible sources with reliable contents written by notable experts in the respective fields. Source 10 is a trustable review as it is written by credible experts in the particular area. Source 12 is a reliable and credible governmental website by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in regulating pesticides; therefore, all facts and information provided are updated. Source 14 is guidelines for laboratory and field testing of mosquito larvicides by World Health Organization, so should contain sound scientific information.

The Life of St. Ignatius Loyola (in first person) :: essays research papers

St. Ignatius Loyola   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I am St. Ignatius Loyola the man who found the Society of Jesus or the Jesuits. My original name is Inigo de Loyola and I was born in 1491 in a place called Azpeitia in the Basque province of Guipuzoa in northern Spain. I was the youngest of thirteen children. At the age of sixteen I became a servant for Juan Velazquez, the treasurer of the kingdom of Castile. I was considered a member of the Velazquez family so when ever Juan went to court I would go with him. In doing this I began to like court and any thing to deal with court, but I gained the biggest interest in the woman. I also began to like gambling; I liked it so much I became addicted to it. I was also very completive and was open to competing in anything-even sword fighting.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   For the next decade or so I didn’t really do much my life didn’t progress at all till 1521 when I turned 30 and I was defending the fortress of the town of Pamplona against the French. We were starting to lose the battle we were out numbered and my head commander wanted to throw in the towel but I said â€Å"no† and convinced him to stay in the battle and fight. I wanted to fight for the honor of Spain, and not for the win. I was in the thick of the battle and â€Å"Wham† I got blasted by cannon ball breaking my leg and wounding the other. Because I was such a courageous leader the French soldiers carried me back to my home rather that prison so I could get better. They set my leg after it broke but it was not healing right so the doctors said they had to break it again with out any use of painkillers. I was told to prepare for my death but instead one day my health took a turn for the better. My leg did heal good but it was shorter th an the other one so for the rest of my life I had to walk with a limp.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  During the many, many, many weeks of recuperation I thought I was going to lose my mind out of boredom. So I asked for some romance novels to help my pass the time. There were no romance novels of any sort in the castle of Loyola; with my luck I did find a book called the Life of Christ.

Marketing Strategy Study Guide

MKT 850 Study Guide Chapter 5 * SWOT Analysis: * One of the most useful tools in analyzing marketing data and information * Links company’s situation analysis and development of marketing plan * Uses structured information to uncover competitive advantages and guide selection of the strategic focus of the marketing strategy. * Broken down into: * Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities & Threats * Productive SWOT (manager should†¦) : * Use a series of SWOT analyses focusing on specific product/market combinations * Search for competitors both present and future Collaborate with other functional areas by sharing information and perspectives * Examine issues from the customers perspective by asking employees: * What do customers believe about us as a company? * Which of our weaknesses translate into a decreased ability to serve customers? * Looks for causes not characteristics considering the firms resources for each part * Separate internal and external issues using this key test: * Would this issue exist if the firm did not exist? * If yes, issue classified as external * Strengths & Weaknesses: Exist because of resources by the firm, or due to the nature of key relationships between the firm and its customers/employees/outside organizations * May be leveraged into capabilities (strengths) or overcome (weaknesses) * Meaningful only when they assist or hinder the firm in satisfying customer needs * Opportunities & Threats: * Not potential marketing actions. Issues/situations that occur in the firm’s external environments. * Not ignored as the firm gets caught up in developing strengths and capabilities for fear of creating an efficient, but ineffective organization. Stem from changes in the competitive, customer, economic, political/legal, technological, and sociocultural environments. * SWOT Matrix: * Allows marketing manager to visualize the analysis * Serves as a catalyst to guide the creation of marketing strategies that will produce desired r esults. * Allows manager to see how strengths and opportunities might be connected to create capabilities that are key to meeting customer needs * Assesses the magnitude and importance of each strength/weak/opp/threat. * Competitive Advantage: Capabilities in relations to those held by the competition * Based on both internal and external factors * Based on reality and customer perception * Based on the basic strategies of operational excellence, product leadership, and customer intimacy. * Strategic Focus Establishment * Based on developing an overall concept or model that guides the firm as it weaves various marketing elements together into a coherent strategy * Tied to firm’s competitive advantage * Use results of SWOT as firm considers four directions of strategic efforts: * Aggressiveness Diversification * Turnaround * Defensiveness * Ensures the firm does not step beyond core strengths to consider opportunities outside its capabilities * Visualized through the use of a strategy canvas where the goal is to develop a value curve that is distinct from the competition * Downplay traditional industry competitive factors in favor of new approaches * Lays groundwork for development of marketing goals and objective, connects SWOT outcomes to the rest of the marketing plan. * Marketing Goals: Broad, desired accomplishments started in general terms. * Indicate the direction the firm attempts to move in, as well as the set of priorities will use in evaluating alternative and making decisions. * Should be attainable, realistic, internally consistent, comprehensive, and clarify the roles of all parties in the organization. * Involves some degree of intangibility * Marketing Objectives: * Specific and quantitative benchmarks that can be used to gauge progress toward the achievement of the marketing goals * Should be attainable with reasonable effort Continuous or discontinuous depending on the degree to which they depart from present objectives * Assigned to sp ecific areas, departments, or individuals who have the responsibility to accomplish them Chapter Six * Buyer Behavior in Consumer Markets: * Often irrational and unpredictable as consumers say one thing and do another * Progress through five stages: * Need Recognition * Information Search * Evaluation of Alternatives * Purchase Decision * Post Purchase Evaluation Don’t always follow these stages in order or may skip stages * May be characterized by loyalty where consumers simply purchase the same product that they bought last time * Involves parallel sequencing of activities with finding the most suitable merchant. * Consider what product they want, and where to buy it * Can occur if a consumer is fiercely loyal to a merchant * Can be affected by: * Complexity of the purchase and decision making process * Demographics, Psychographics, and Sociocultural factors * Social influences: culture, social class, family, opinion leaders, reference groups. Situational influences: physic al and spatial influences, social and personal influences, time, purchase task/usage, consumer disposition * Consumers Wants & Needs: * Shouldn’t define needs as necessities because everyone has a different perspective on what constitutes a need * Needs occur when a consumers current level of satisfaction doesn’t equal their desired level * Wants are consumers desire for a specific product that will satisfy a specific need * Firm must understand basic needs fulfilled by its products. Allows firm to segment markets and create marketing programs that show needs into wants for their product * Most products are marketed on the basis of wants not need fulfillment * Wants are not the same as demand * Demand: occurs when the consumers ability and willingness to pay backs up a want for a specific product * Information Search: * Passive and Active: * Passive- consumer become more attentive and receptive to information * Active- consumer engages more aggressive seeking informati on search * Depends on several issues: Degree of risk * Level of expertise * Actual cost of search (time and money) * Culminates in an evoked set of suitable buying alternatives * Evaluation of Alternatives: * Translates needs into wants for specific products or brands * Evaluate products as bundles of attributes that have varying abilities to satisfy their needs * Priority of each consumers choice criteria can change * Want the product to be in the evoked set of potential alternatives * Constantly remind them of their company and products * Purchase Stage: Intent to purchase and the actual act of buying are distinct concepts * Key issues: * product availability: how easy is it to get the product where the consumer is * possession utility: how easy is it to transfer ownership * Postpurchase Evaluation: * Outcome of buying process is linked to the development of long-term customer relationships. Closely follow customers’ responses to monitor performance and ability to meet cus tomers’ expectations * Will experience one potential outcomes: Delight, satisfaction, dissatisfaction, or cognitive dissonance * Business Markets: * Purchase products for their use in their operations, like buying raw materials, buying office supplies, or leasing cars * Consists of four types of buyers: * Commercial markets * Reseller markets * Government markets * Institutional markets * Four unique characteristics not found in consumer markets: * The buyer center: economic buyers, technical buyers, and users * Hard and soft costs are equally important Hard- monetary price or purchase costs * Soft- downtime, opportunity costs, HR costs * Reciprocity: business buyers and sellers often buy products from each other * Mutual dependence: sole-source or limited-source buying makes both buying and selling firms mutually dependent * Business Buying Process: * Sequence of Stages: * Problem Recognition * Development of product specifications * Vendor identification and qualification * Solicitation of proposals and bids * Vendor selection Order processing * Vendor performance review * Can be affected by several factors including: environmental conditions, organizational factors, and interpersonal/individual factors * Market Segmentation: process of dividing the total market for a particular product or product category into relatively homogeneous segments or groups * Groups should have similar members, but groups must be dissimilar from each other * Fundamental decision of whether to segment at all Allows firms to be more successful due to the fact that they can tailor products to meet the needs of a particular market segment * Traditional market segmentation approach: * Used successfully for decades, not out of date, and are used by many of today’s most successful firms * Can be used in combination with newer approaches by the firm, depending on the brand/product or market in question * Successful segmentation: Must be identifiable and measureable * Substa ntial * Accessible * Responsive * Viable and sustainable * Avoid ethical/legally sensitive segments * Avoid viable segments that don’t match firm’s mission * Mass Marketing: no segmentation and is aimed at the total market for a product * Undifferentiated approach assumes all customers have similar needs/wants * Works best when needs are relatively homogeneous Advantage- production efficiency and lower marketing costs * Disadvantage- risky because a standardized product is vulnerable to competitors that offer specialized products that better match customers’ needs * Differentiated Marketing: divides the total market into groups of customers having relatively homogenous needs, attempting to develop a marketing program that appeals to one or more of these groups * Necessary when customer needs are similar within a single group, but the needs differ across groups * Two options: * Multi-segment approach * Market concentration approach Niche Marketing: focusing effor ts on one small, well defined market segment or niche that has a unique, specific set of needs * Requires that firms understand and meet needs of target customers. Although small in size, firms substantial share makes the segment highly profitable * Individualized Segmentation Approaches: * Viable due to advances in technology especially in communication and the internet * Organizations can now track customer with a high degree of specificity * Allows firms to combine demographic data with past/current purchasing behavior. Tweak marketing programs in ways that allow them to precisely match customers’ needs, wants, and preferences * Become more important in the future because their focus on individual customers makes them critical to the development and maintenance of long-term relationships * Expensive to deliver * Two important considerations: * Automated delivery of the marketing program * Personalization One-to-one Marketing: involves the creation of an entire unique produ ct or marketing program for each customer in the target segment * Common in business markets where unique programs and systems are designed for each customer * Growing rapidly in consumer markets, in luxury or custom made products or services * Mass customization: providing unique products and solutions to individual customers on a mass scale * Cost-effective and practical due to advances in supply-chain management. real time inventory control) * Used frequently in business markets, especially electronic procurement systems * Permission Marketing: different from one-to-one marketing because customers choose to become a member of the firm’s target market * Commonly executed via opt in email lists * Advantage: customers already interested in firms offerings * Allows precise target of individuals, eliminating the problem of wasted marketing effort and expense * Identify Market Segments: selecting most relevant variables to identify and define the target market, many of which com e from the situation analysis of the marketing plan. Isolation of individual characteristics that distinguish one or more segments from the total market (must have homogeneous needs) * Consumer markets involved examination of factors of one of these categories: * Behavioral segmentation: most powerful approach because it uses actual consumer behavior or product usage helps to make distinctions among market segments Demographic segmentation: divides markets using factors such as gender, age, income, and education * Psychographic segmentation: state-of-mind issues such as motives, attitudes, opinions, values, lifestyles, interests, and personality * Geographic segmentation: most useful when combined with other segmentation variables, geodemographic segmentation or geoclustering. * Business markets are based on types of market or on things such as: organization, characteristics, benefits sought/buying process, personal/psych characteristics, or relationship intensity. Top Marketing Str ategies: * Based on evaluation of the attractiveness of each segment and whether each offers opportunities that match firms capabilities and resources * Single segment targeting, selective targeting, mass market targeting, product specialization, and market specialization. * Also consider issues related to noncustomers, like why they do not buy and finding ways to remove obstacles to purchase. Chapter 7 Product Strategy: at the heart of every organization and it defines what the organization does and why it exists * Creating a productive offering that is a bundle of physical (tangible), service (intangible), and symbolic (perceptual) attributes designed to satisfy customer wants/needs. * Strives to overcome commoditization by differentiating product offerings via the service and symbolic elements of the offering * Product Portfolio: * Used in both consumer (convenience, shopping, specialty, etc. and business markets (raw materials, process materials, installations, etc. ) * Used in most firms due to the advantages of selling a variety of products * Consists of a group of closely related product items (product lines) and the total group of products offered by a firm (product mix) * Involves strategic decisions such as variety and assortment of offerings * Can create benefits including: economies of scale, package uniformity, standardization, sales and distribution efficiency, etc. Service Products Challenges: stem from the intangibility of services. Other characteristics include simultaneous production/consumption, and perish ability/client based relationships * Other issues: * Experience problems in balancing supply and demand * Time and place dependent because customers must be present for delivery * Customers have a difficult time evaluating quality of service before it is purchased * Quality of service is often inconsistent and hard to standardize * Need for some services are not always apparent to customers.Service marketers often have trouble tying offeri ngs to needs * New Product Development: vital part of a firm’s efforts to sustain growth and profits * Six strategic options related to newness of products: * New-to-world products (discontinuous innovations)- which involve a pioneering effort by a firm that leads to the creation of an entirely new market * New product lines- represent new offerings by the firm, but they become introduced into established markets * Product line extensions- supplement an existing product line with new styles, models, features, or flavors * Improvements/Revisions of existing products- offer customers improved performance or greater perceived value * Repositioning- targeting existing products at new markets or segments * Cost reductions- modifying products to offer performance similar to competing products at a lower price * Depends on firms ability to create differential advantage for the new product * Proceeds through five stages: * Idea generation * Screening and evaluation * Development * Te st marketing * Commercialization * Branding Strategy: selecting the right combination of name, symbol, term, and design that identifies a specific product * Two parts: * Brand name: words, letters, and numbers * Brand mark: symbols, figures, or a design * Critical to product identification and factor used by marketers to differentiate a product from its competition * Successful- capture product offering in a way that answers a question in consumers mind *Involves many attributes that make up the way customers think about brands: * People (employees and endorsers) * Places (country of origin) * Things (events, causes, third party endorsements) * Other brands (alliances, the company, extensions) * Advantage- make it easier for customers to find and buy products * Four key issues: * Manufacturer vs. private-label brands- private label brands are more profitable than manufacturer brands for the retailers that carry them. Manufactured brands have built-in demand, recognition, and product loyalty. * Brand loyalty- positive attitude toward a brand that causes customers to have a consistent preference for that brand over all competing brands in a product category. Three levels: brand recognition, brand preference, and brand insistence * Brand equity- the value of a brand or the marketing and financial value associated with a brand’s position in the marketplace. * Brand alliances- branding strategies, such as co branding that involve developing close relationships with other firms. * Packaging and labeling: * Part of developing a product, its benefits, its differentiation, and its image * Issues such as color, shape, size, convenience of the package or container * Are often used in product modifications/co branding to reposition the product or give it new features. * Vital in helping customers make proper product selections * Important environmental and legal consequences * Differentiation and Positioning: Creating differences in the firm’s product offeri ng that set it apart from competing offerings (product differentiation) and the development and maintenance of a relative position for a product in the minds of the target market (product positioning) * Can be monitored through perceptual mapping- a visual, spatial display of customer perceptions on two or more key dimensions * Based on the brand, but also product descriptors, customer support services and image * Includes positioning strategies to strengthen current position, reposition, or reposition the competition * Managing Products and Brands over time: * Traditional product life cycle five stages: Development: a time of no sale revenue, negative cash flow and high risk * Introduction: time of rising customer awareness, extensive marketing expenditures, and rapidly increasing sales revenue * Growth: time of rapidly increasing sales revenue, rising profits, market expansion, and increasing numbers of competitors * Maturity: time of sales and profit plateaus, a shift from custom er acquisition to customer retention, and strategies aimed at holding or stealing market share * Decline: time of persistent sales and profit decreases, attempts to postpone the decline, or strategies aimed at harvesting or divesting the product * Influence by shifts in the market, or actions of the firms within the industry as they constantly reinvent themselves. Chapter 8 * Pricing: * Key factor in producing revenue for a firm * Easiest of all marketing variables to change * Important consideration in competitive intelligence * Only real means of differentiation in mature markets that are commoditized * Among most complex decisions to be made in developing a marketing plan * Sellers Actions regarding Price: Tend to inflate prices to receive as much as possible in exchange * Consider four issues in pricing strategy: * Costs * Demand * Customer value * Competitors’ prices * Have increased power over buyers when products are in short supply, high demand, or good economic times . * Buyers Actions regarding Price: * See prices as being lower than the market reality dictates * Two issues: * perceived value * price sensitivity * Considered value to be the ratio of benefits to costs. â€Å"More bang for the buck† * Increased power over sellers when large number of sellers, economy is weak, product information easy to obtain, or price comparisons are easy to make * Cutting prices: Viable means of increasing sales, moving excess inventory, or generating short-term cash flow * Based on two general pricing myths: * When business is good, a price cut will capture greater market share * When business is bad, a price cute will stimulate sales * Risky because a price cut must be offset by an increase in sales volume to maintain the same level of gross margin * Not always best strategy, maybe build value into the product instead. * Pricing strategy issues: * Pricing objectives * Nature of supply and demand in the market * Firms cost structure * Nature of competi tion and the structure of the industry * Stage of the product life cycle * Firms cost structure: Typically associated with pricing through breakeven analysis or cost-plus pricing * Not be the driving force behind pricing strategy because different firms have different structures * Used to establish a floor below which prices cannot be set for an extended period of time * Pricing Strategy in Services: * Critical as price may be the only cue to quality in advance of the purchase experience * Becomes important and more difficult when: * Service quality hard to detect prior to purchase * Costs associated with providing the service are difficult to determine * Customers are unfamiliar with the service process * Brand names are not well established * Customers can perform the service themselves * Service has poorly defined units of consumption Advertising within a service category is limited * Total price of the service experience is difficult to state beforehand * Often based on yield ma nagement systems allowing a firm to both control capacity and demand in order to maximize revenue and capacity utilization * Yield management: knowing when and where to raise prices to increase revenue or to lower prices to increase sales volume. * Implemented by limiting the available capacity at certain prices, controlling demand through price changes, and overbooking capacity * Common in services characterized by high fixed costs and low variable costs, like airlines, hotels, rental cars, cruises, etc. Allows firm to offer same basic product to different market segments at different prices * Price elasticity of demand: * Customers’ responsiveness or sensitivity to changes in price * Inelastic: quantity demanded does not respond to price changes * Elastic: quantity demanded is sensitive to price changes * Unitary: changes in price and demand offset, keeping total revenue the same * Not uniform over time and place because demand is not uniform * Price Sensitivity Increases: * Substitute products are widely available * Total expenditure is high * Changes in price are noticeable to customers * Price comparison among competing products is easy Price Sensitivity Decreases: * Substitute products are not available * Products are highly differentiated from the competition * Customers perceive products as being necessities * Prices of complementary products go down * Customers believe the product is worth the price * Time pressures or purchase risk are involved for consumers * Major base pricing strategies include: * Market introduction pricing: used of price skimming or penetration pricing when products are first launched into the market * Prestige pricing: intentionally setting prices at the top end of all competing products in order to promote an image of exclusivity and superior quality Value-based pricing (EDLP)- setting reasonably low prices, but still offering high quality products and adequate customer service * Competitive matching- charging what is c onsidered to be the â€Å"going rate† for the industry * Nonprice strategies- building a marketing program around factors other than price * Strategies for adjusting prices in consumer markets: * Promotional discounting: putting products on sale * Reference pricing: comparing the actual selling price to an internal or external reference price * Odd-even pricing: setting prices in odd numbers, rather than in whole, round numbers * Price bundling: bringing together two or more complementary products for a single price * Strategies for adjusting prices in business markets: Trade discounts: reducing prices for certain intermediaries in the supply chain based on the functions that they perform * Discounts and allowances: giving buyers price breaks, including discounts for cash, quantity or bulk discounts, seasonal discounts, or trade allowances for participation in advertising or sales support programs * Geographic pricing: quotes prices based on transportation costs (distance) * Transfer pricing: pricing when one unit in an organization sells products to another unit * Barter and countertrade: full or partial payments in goods/services/buying agreements rather than in cash * Price discrimination: charging different prices to different customers * Dynamic Pricing: * Started to replace fixed pricing in many product categories * Growing in importance and popularity due to the growth of online auction firms * Three pricing levels: * Opening position * Aspiration price Price limit * Long process, but is most logical and systematic way for two parties that don’t initially agree to reach agreement * Legal & Ethical Issues of Pricing: * Price discrimination: different prices to different customers. Illegal unless its basis is the actual cost differences in selling products to one customer relative to another. * Price fixing: when two or more competitors collaborate to set prices at an artificial level * Predatory pricing: firm sets prices for a product below the variable cost to drive out competitors or out of the market * Deceptive pricing: firm intentionally mislead customers with price promotions.

Teaching Others to Write. . . Online

Teaching Others to Write. . . Online If you’ve been published for any length of time, you realize thousands upon thousands of writers still struggle to get published or to decide what they want to write. Some still need to learn the basics while others seek to be steered in the right direction. With enough experience and knowledge under your belt, you might be able to help them and, in turn, increase your writing profits. You don’t need to be a New York Times bestseller or have numerous awards to your credit to teach; however, you do need strong writing skills, proof that you’ve mastered an area of writing, and the ability to convey the knowledge you have learned to others. Choosing the topic to teach involves research as you look into writing courses already available. You don’t want to offer a course too similar or too generic, and what you do offer should be a component of writing with which you’re extremely familiar. For instance, if you’ve gotten rave reviews on your villainous characters, you could possibly teach a course for other aspiring suspense/thriller writers. Teaching writing courses involves designing the course, which includes writing all of the lessons and the assignments, and setting the price, although some sites do have input on the fee. You will also review the students’ assignments and offer feedback for improvement. Some teachers offer an assessment test or a review wrap-up at the end of the course but neither are required. It is helpful to think creatively when you’re designing your course, though, because you must be a magnet, convincing writers why they should take your course. I just completed teaching a romance writing course for Wow! Women On Writing, and I have a different class, about how to strengthen your fiction, that will start on September 16th. The site takes 20 percent commission, but I factor that in when I set the price of my classes. I have been teaching for Women On Writing since 2016, and the extra income is well worth the small bit of time it takes to review student assignments. Sites like Women On Writing and Savvy Authors are always scouting for high-quality teachers, and once you pass their application process, you set the times you want to teach around your schedule. Plus, the material belongs to you, and you can use it as often as you’d like, whether it’s four times a year or only once. Â  CreativeLive is also open to new instructors, but these are recorded classes, which might be another interesting path to take. There is a short learning curve to teaching an online class, and it’s always beneficial to take one yourself before becoming the teacher. Become accustomed to the flow of the class to determine what you like and don’t like about particular ways of teaching. You’ll find your own way to present your information to students. You might also want to take this free course so you can learn to teach online. Once you’ve been teaching for a while, you could even try your hand at places like Udemy and Skillshare which offer video-based courses and a chance for you to earn even more money, though the learning curve at these sites has a bit of a wider arc. Finally, as a bonus, once you’re tired of a written course or don’t have the desire to teach it anymore, you can turn the classes into articles to sell. Most will need basic restructuring before you submit them for possible publication.

Qualitative and Quantitative Methodologies

Qualitative and Quantitative Methodologies Abstract Proponents of using quantitative or qualitative methodologies in the research process are inclined to point at advantages of their preferable paradigm while ignoring strengths of the other methods. Nevertheless, debates on the problem seem to be groundless because today researchers choose methodologies while focusing on the purpose of their studies, and they often mix methods to receive the most valid results.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Qualitative and Quantitative Methodologies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In this context, inquiry concerns proposed by Patton to discuss the qualitative studies seem to be relevant to evaluate the quantitative methodology. From this perspective, it is rather difficult to determine the paradigm that can be discussed as more credible than the other one. That is why, modern debates are not as active as decades ago, and proponents of both quantitative and quali tative methodologies propose to combine their features in one credible methodology. Introduction Current debates on the acceptability of using quantitative and qualitative methodologies and methods in science are based on the traditional opposition in the views of researchers who declare the advantages of different methodologies. According to Patton, the observed debate on selecting methodologies has its origin in the â€Å"long-standing debate in science over how best to study and understand the world† (Patton, 2001, p. 571). The debate is grounded not only on the problem of selection of methods but also on the opposition in theories and philosophies on which methodologies are based. Thus, the quantitative methodology refers to ideas of positivism, where the focus is on empirical factors and a distant researcher. According to Sale, Lohfeld, and Brazil, â€Å"the investigator is capable of studying a phenomenon without influencing it or being influenced by it† (Sale et al., 2002, p. 44). The opposite situation is observed with references to the qualitative methodology because it is based on constructivism, the main idea of which is the construction of the knowledge based on the analysis of multiple realities (Sale et al., 2002, p. 45). Although the debate between proponents of qualitative and quantitative methodologies is still present in the scientific world, this debate is transformed into the discussion of possibilities to combine the qualitative and quantitative methods in order to receive the integrated inquiry which has strengths of both methodologies.Advertising Looking for critical writing on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More From this point, the purpose of this research paper is to evaluate the current debates on the acceptability of using quantitative and qualitative methodologies and to discuss the possibility of creating the effective integrated inquiry to ov ercome weaknesses and biases associated with using quantitative or qualitative methodologies. Assessment of typical inquiry concerns Developing the evaluation of the debates, it is necessary to discuss how researchers determine trustworthiness in relation to their methods and findings. Validity and reliability are the basic concepts which are used to discuss the effectiveness of quantitative methodologies. Boudah notes that these categories and concepts are not appropriate for discussing the qualitative methodologies because the qualitative data are usually presented in abstract notions (Boudah, 2010, p. 76). As a result, the main focus is on assessing credibility of the qualitative research based on three inquiry concerns formulated by Patton. The first important concern is the focus on â€Å"rigorous methods for doing fieldwork†; the second component is â€Å"credibility of the researcher†; and the third one is the â€Å"philosophical belief in the value of qualitat ive inquiry† (Patton, 2001, p. 570). At this stage, it is important to state why these aspects are determined as basic ones for discussing methodologies used by scientists. The focus on â€Å"rigorous methods for doing fieldwork† means using the most accurate methods and precise techniques in order to collect and analyze the data to receive credible and supported results (Patton, 2001, p. 570). From this perspective, the quality of the research directly depends on the quality of selected methods, tools, and techniques, thus, the quality of a methodology. This aspect is important to be referred to while developing the research because it creates the fundament for the investigation. The role of the researcher is also important because the quality of findings depends on the researcher’s training and experience in the field (Boudah, 2010, p. 76; Sale et al., 2002, p. 46). Patton concentrates on the discussion of the qualitative methodology, and the third criterion ca n be explained as the necessity of appreciating qualitative methods as primary techniques (Patton, 2001, p. 570). In this case, the third aspect cannot be discussed to evaluate quantitative methods. Still, the other two criteria can be used to discuss the appropriateness of the quantitative methodology.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Qualitative and Quantitative Methodologies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Inquiry concerns related to qualitative versus quantitative inquiries The criteria proposed by Patton are the fundament to direct the researcher’s activities regarding his work with the qualitative methodology. Differences in working with the qualitative data are discussed by Boudah who states that â€Å"the researcher processes the data in a unique way, based upon training, experience, bias, and other factors. This is different from the processing of statistical data† (Boudah, 2010, p. 76). In this case, the choice of methods and the researcher’s experience affect the research process significantly. As it is mentioned in the assessment of traditional inquiry concerns, such two aspects as the quality of methods and credibility of the researcher should also be discussed in the context of the quantitative methodology because two paradigms have not only differences but also similarities. According to Sale, Lohfeld, and Brazil, two methodologies are similar because â€Å"they share the tenets of theory-ladenness of facts, fallibility of knowledge, indetermination of theory by fact, and a value-ladened inquiry process† (Sale et al., 2002, p. 46). It is important to state that modern experimental and exploratory studies focus on collecting not only quantitative data but also qualitative data. As a result, to evaluate evidence, researchers need to use elements of the qualitative methodologies in addition to quantitative techniques (Sale et al., 2002, p. 45) . Consequently, such traditional quantitative methods as experiments receive the features of qualitative studies. In this situation, the focus on inquiry concerns formulated by Patton is helpful for scientists who were traditionally discussed as users of quantitative methodologies. The most credible methodology The active debates develop round the question of the methodologies’ credibility or validity. In order to support their vision of methodologies’ credibility and determine the most credible and acceptable paradigm, researchers discuss methodologies’ strengths and weaknesses. In this context, the qualitative methodology is often discussed as less credible than the quantitative paradigm. Patton claims that there is â€Å"a lingering bias† against the qualitative methodology in the scientific world, and as a result, the qualitative data seems to â€Å"carry the stigma of ‘being soft’† (Patton, 2001, p. 573). The researchers support t heir ideas while stating that qualitative methods are rather ‘subjective’ in contrast to ‘objective’ quantitative methods based on logic and facts because the quantitative data are presented in easily generalized numbers when the qualitative data are presented in abstract notions (Bryman, 2007, p. 9; Sale et al., 2002, p. 47).Advertising Looking for critical writing on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Dependence of the qualitative data on the researcher’s interpretation is considered as a main challenge for discussing the paradigm as providing the objective data. Patton states that â€Å"qualitative rigor has to do with the quality of the observations made by an evaluator† (Patton, 2001, p. 575). In addition, according to Kerlinger, numbers extremely matter in the research because â€Å"everything is either 1 or 0† (as cited in Berg Lune, 2012, p. 4). From this perspective, the researchers are inclined to discuss the qualitative researches as dependent on a range of subjective factors. Berg and Lune state that â€Å"qualitative researchers need to be more precise, more careful in their definitions and procedures, and clearer in their writing than most other scientists† (Berg Lune, 2012, p. 4). It is a strategy to make the qualitative methodology more appropriate for using in the scientific world. In this context, proponents of the quantitative method s state that this paradigm is more workable and appropriate for the research in fields of psychology, nursing, and social sciences (Berg Lune, 2012, p. 5; Boudah, 2010, p. 76). The numerical data associated with the quantitative research is clear and representative. Thus, to receive the objective results and findings, proponents of the quantitative methodology offer to use experiments and studies where the results are calculated with statistical methods (Sale et al., 2002, p. 45). However, Patton, as a proponent of the qualitative paradigm, proposes the counterargument while stating that â€Å"numbers do not protect against bias; they merely disguise it† (Patton, 2001, p. 574). In this case, the users of quantitative methods remain to be confused because â€Å"numbers convey a sense of precision and accuracy even if the measurements that yielded the numbers are relatively unreliable, invalid, and meaningless† (Patton, 2001, p. 573). Following the ideas proposed by Gel o, Braakmann, and Benetka, it is possible to state that there is a â€Å"fundamental issue which has been often ignored within quantitative research: the issue of the ontology and epistemology of variables† (Gelo, Braakmann, Benetka, 2008, p. 267). Variables presented in quantitative measures often include the qualitative information in them because there is often a focus on the relationship between variables that is observed at the level of both quantitative and qualitative data (Gelo et al., 2008, p. 268; Sale et al., 2002, p. 45). From this perspective, the discussion of the quantitative methodology as more credible because of the focus on numbers seems to be unsupported with the practice of scientists. In this context, it is impossible to choose the most appropriate or effective methodology because it is necessary to refer to the purpose of the research rather than to the presence or absence of numerical data in results. The most actively used methodology in the scientif ic community While discussing the credibility of qualitative and quantitative methodologies, researchers often notes that the quantitative paradigm is more appropriate because it is frequently used in the scientific community. According to Gelo, Braakmann, and Benetka, quantitative approaches prevail in the scientific world; and focusing on the field of psychology, investigators note that â€Å"quantitative approaches have always dominated mainstream psychological research† (Gelo et al., 2008, p. 268). However, the vision of Gelo and the group of researchers is discussed as irrelevant by Bryman because the focus on the qualitative research and personal experiences is the basis for psychology (Bryman, 2007, p. 9). The more convincing argument against the prevalence of quantitative methods is proposed by Boudah and Patton, who state that the qualitative paradigm is more actively discussed in the field of social sciences when it is necessary to make conclusions based on observat ions or interviews (Boudah, 2010, p. 77; Patton, 2001, p. 580). Furthermore, those quantitative and qualitative paradigms followed in the modern scientific research, especially with the focus on the field of psychology and social sciences, should be discussed as mixed because researchers are inclined to combine methods to receive more detailed results. Creation of one integrated inquiry Many researchers agree to stop debates on the effectiveness of qualitative and quantitative methodologies with creating an integrated inquiry that could address the needs of proponents of both perspectives (Boudah, 2010, p. 77; Bryman, 2007, p. 9). The main question formulated as a result of prolonged debates on the appropriateness of qualitative and quantitative paradigms is â€Å"how to combine the strengths of each in a multimethods approach to research and evaluation† (Patton, 2001, p. 574). The researcher continues his discussion of the necessity to propose a new approach to research whil e stating that it is necessary to focus on â€Å"more balance and a better understanding of the situations for which various methods are most appropriate as well as grounded experience in how to combine methods† (Patton, 2001, p. 586). While being developed, this mixed approach can be discussed as effective to be utilized in different areas of knowledge and practice because many issues are too complex to be explored only in the context of one paradigm, and these complex questions require the discussion of data â€Å"from a large number of perspectives† (Sale et al., 2002, p. 46). In this context, the development of the integrated inquiry is the most effective solution in order to end the debates on the effectiveness of qualitative and quantitative methodologies. Both methodologies can be discussed as helpful to present objective and credible results, and the researcher benefits while combining the approaches. Conclusion Debates on the effectiveness of quantitative and qualitative methodologies are the characteristic feature of the scientific world. In spite of the fact that strengths and weaknesses of both paradigms can be clearly identified, there is an opinion that the quantitative methodology is more appropriate to be used in the research process because it provides the objective numerical data. However, the proponents of the qualitative methodology argue that such statements are groundless because the qualitative paradigm also has many strong points, and it is actively used by researchers. Having evaluated the visions and opinions of supporters of different paradigms, it is possible to state that the modern debate is rather unfounded. From this point, it is almost impossible to determine the paradigm that can be discussed as most credible in the situation when researchers are inclined to focus on combining methods belonging to different paradigms. Today, the debate on the problem is based on the idea of developing a paradigm that could combin e the features of quantitative and qualitative methodologies in one credible methodology. References Berg, B. L., Lune, H. (2012). Qualitative research methods for the social sciences. New York, NY: Pearson Education Inc. Boudah, D. (2010). Conducting educational research: Guide to completing a major project. New York, NY: SAGE Publishing. Bryman, A. (2007). Barriers to integrating quantitative and qualitative research. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(1), 8-22. Gelo, O., Braakmann, D., Benetka, G. (2008). Quantitative and qualitative research: Beyond the debate. Integrative Psychological Behavioral Science, 42(3), 266-290. Patton, M. Q. (2001). Qualitative research evaluation methods. New York, NY: SAGE Publications. Sale, J., Lohfeld, L., Brazil, K. (2002). Revisiting the quantitative-qualitative debate: Implications for mixed-methods research. Quality Quantity, 36(1), 43–53.

Largest Cities in the World

Largest Cities in the World The 9th edition of the National Geographic Atlas of the World, published in 2011, estimated the urban area population of the worlds largest cities, those with a population above 10 million people, which they termed megacities. The population estimates for the worlds largest cities below are based on population estimates from 2007. Population numbers for the worlds largest cities are rounded since they are incredibly difficult to determine precisely; millions within most megacities live in poverty in shantytowns or other areas where accurate census taking is near impossible. The following eighteen largest cities in the world are all those with a population of 11 million or more, based on the National Geographic atlas data. 1. Tokyo, Japan - 35.7 million 2. Mexico City, Mexico - 19 million (tie) 2. Mumbai, India - 19 million (tie) 2. New York City, United States - 19 million (tie) 5. Sao Paulo, Brazil - 18.8 million 6. Delhi, India - 15.9 million 7. Shanghai, China - 15 million 8. Kolkata, India - 14.8 million 9. Dhaka, Bangladesh - 13.5 million 10. Jakarta, Indonesia - 13.2 million 11. Los Angeles, United States - 12.5 million 12. Buenos Aires, Argentina - 12.3 million 13. Karachi, Pakistan - 12.1 million 14. Cairo, Egypt - 11.9 million 15. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil - 11.7 million 16. Osaka-Kobe, Japan - 11.3 million 17. Manila, Philippines - 11.1 million (tie) 17. Beijing, China - 11.1 million (tie) Additional lists of population estimates for the largest cities in the world can be found in my Largest Cities of the World collection of lists.

Passage to Modernity Dupre Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Passage to Modernity Dupre - Essay Example At the early stages of modernity, artists still viewed themselves as creating in unison with nature; â€Å"mind and nature relate harmoniously to one another† (p. 49). Moreover, nature’s perception began to change. Galileo expressed the idea of natural form in mathematical terms, â€Å"loosening the union between physical essence and artistic ideal† (p.51). He found a systematic study of nature, rather than depending on direct observation. This notion of rational knowledge of the world become central to the transformation from medieval age to modernity. In the emergence of modernity, chemistry played an important role towards the scientific revolution. Alchemy is frequently forgotten when we talk about the breakthroughs of science that changed our perception of the world. Alchemists believed in the harmony between the individual and the cosmos. â€Å"at the basis of the alchemical enterprise is the concept of a microcosmos perfectly tuned to the macrocosmos of nature†. The notion that we are should interfere with natural processes in order to achieve harmony transforms the perception of nature. â€Å"rather than serving as nature’s assistant, the person now becomes its controller.† (p.54). There was a thorough rejection to the idea that the stars controlled man, that we were passively submitting to matter. Nevertheless, the interest in astrology was not completely eliminated; but as it happened with alchemy, they became less appealing at the face of new physical theories that rationally explained the universe.

Developing People and Planning Work Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Developing People and Planning Work - Assignment Example The role of a team player is to contribute and participate whole-heartedly. Understanding the responsibilities and expectations of the team and aligning them to the organizational goals, will enable the player to progress on a personal level as well as a team member. By offering support to the other team members and arriving at a plan and executing the task within timelines will enhance the team performance. A good team manager who in addition to performing the roles of a team player, also tries to bring out the best in his team, by leveraging on the strength of the members and playing down their weaknesses. A team has been defined as "a small number of people with complementary skills who are equally committed to a common purpose, goal, and working approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable."(Katzenbach, Smith, 1993). A group of people does not constitute a team. A team has clearly defined goals and performance objectives for which members are individually and collectively accountable. A team is characterized by being trained and in communication with its other members. Its members support each other, officially and personally and share expertise to achieve project goals. Teams have a set of rules that are enforced and take time to develop and achieve the highest level of performance. The role of performance measures is measurements of performance that serve to inform the organization about the efficiency of achieving predetermined goals. This continuous monitoring serves the purpose of controlling the progress of the work within a specified framework and should corrective action be required, timely intervention is made possible. Motivation Motivation as a business concept Motivation may be defined as the inner force that drives individuals to accomplish personal and organizational goals. Traditionally, employees were just a part of the business entity and were not treated as a valuable asset. However with the Hawthorne Studies began the human relations approach to management, whereby the needs and motivation of employees become the primary focus of managers (Bedeian, 1993). It did not take long for them to realize that motivated employees are more productive and contribute to better overall efficiencies of the organization. Therefore, the onus was on the manager to make sure that the employee was motivated and this was quite a challenge due to the complexity of human nature. Each unique individual had different reasons to be motivated and different methods that were effective and this made it arguably really complex. Source from website http://www.accel-team.com/motivation/index.html Assess motivation of team Teams that are motivated often possess these characteristics Purpose: When teams have a specific purpose, goal or a mission, then the members are united towards a specific path and are motivated to travel along it. Challenge: Motivation is generally high when the task is challenging and has a level of difficulty that excites the team members to perform better. However, if the task is too difficult, members may give up or if it is too easy, members just slack and take it easy. Camaraderie: When team members genuinely like each other, they work harder together and are often

Perry Rose Case Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Perry Rose Case Study - Essay Example Additionally, a Memo will be prepared to the board advising them on whether to accept or reject the project. The study will put forth factors that a bank should consider prior advancing loans. Additionally, calculations will be utilized in order to determine whether the bank should grant the required increase in the overdraft for Gainsborough Fashions Ltd. In above connection, the Year0 Year1 Year2 Year3 Year4 year5 Year6 ?000 ?000 ?000 ?000 ?000 ?000 ?000 Equipments (500) - - - - - (100) Sales Revenue 0 450 470 470 470 470 470 (-)Less Cost Materials 0 0 126 132 132 132 132 Labour 0 0 90 94 94 94 94 Overheads 0 0 300 300 300 300 300 Add back Depreciation 0 0 120 120 120 120 120 Working Capital (180) - - - - - - Incremental cash flows 320 450 74 64 64 64 (36) (b) Calculate: (i) The project’s payback period. ... ii) The project’s net present value as at 31 December Year 0. Years Incremental cash flow Discount factor (12%) Present Value 0 (?500) 1 (?500) 1 ?450 0.893 ?401.85 2 ?74 0.797 ?58.98 3 ?64 0.712 ? 45.57 4 ?64 0.636 ? 40.70 5 ?64 0.567 ?36.29 6 (?36) 0.507 (?18.25) Net Present Value=?101.64 (c) Write a memo to the board advising on the acceptance or rejection of the project. (7 marks) Perry Rose Plc Finance Public Limited Company Bromsgrove 6th April 2013. To: The Board of Perry Rose Plc. From: Assistant Accountant of Perry Rose Plc Subject: Acceptance or Rejection of the Project The computation above indicates that the amount invested would be recovered within a very short time. This is based on the pay back period which shows that the amount invested will be recovered within a period of 1year and 4 months. Additionally, the above computations indicate that the Board of Perry Rose Plc should undertake the project because it has a positive net present value of ?101.64. Whereby , a positive net present value indicates that better returns will be derived by investing in this project (Hansen, Mowen and Guan, 2009). Therefore, I would recommend the company to undertake the project because the benefits outweigh the cost. Yours Sincerely Finance and Accounting Department 2. (a) Identify and discuss the major factors that a bank would take into account before deciding whether to grant an increase in the overdraft of a business. An overdraft involves amount of money given by bank account to the business and it should be repaid upon bank request. An overdraft provides current account holders with an opportunity to withdraw more funds than what it is already available in

Is there an inverse relationship between inflation and unemployment ( Essay

Is there an inverse relationship between inflation and unemployment ( Phillips Curve). Do unemployment rates give a realistic picture of differences in economic activity in Britain and Europe - Essay Example From the Philips curve therefore it is apparent that inflation and unemployment share an inverse relationship where inflation rises with the reduction of unemployment and vice versa (Gordon 2011). From the diagram, when the unemployment rate is 4% the inflation rate is 7% and when the unemployment rate is 6% the inflation rate is 3%. The diagram clearly shows that when the rate of unemployment is higher (6%) the rate of inflation is lower (3%) that when the unemployment rate low (4%) which results in a higher inflation rate (7%). Unemployment rates provide a realistic picture of the differences in economic activity in Britain and Europe. The difference between the economic activities in Britain and Europe can be attributed to the rates of unemployment. The unemployment rates in Britain are lower that the unemployment rate in Europe and the rate of economic activity in Britain are higher than that in Europe. The high number of employed individual’s in Britain economy increases the overall spending in the economy and subsequently the general economic activity of the country is increased. Reduction of the rates of unemployment increase expenditure within an economy and results in improved economic activities (Jovanovic & Jovanović

America's Ethos and why Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964 decided to intervene Term Paper

America's Ethos and why Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964 decided to intervene militarily in the Dominican Civil War - Term Paper Example The constitution began as a compromise between the people who believed in central government with diffusion of power across the state and those who perceived the central government to be weak if diffusing its power across states (Bryson 771). Lyndon B Johnson became the 36th president in US. He served in all elected federal offices in US. He served as a democrat between 1937 and 1949, as a senator between 1949 and 1961. After assassination of President John Kennedy in 1963, Johnson took over the presidency. He won the support of Democratic Party. He designed the legislation on Great Society that saw the inclusion of the law that upheld the civil rights and fight on poverty. The bill on civil rights banned racial discrimination in the public facilities (Colman 34). According to the ethos in America, U.S. was not to seek the leadership position in the world. However, it was providence or fate that forced America into a new role. The American ethos does not include of America becoming the worlds police. Nevertheless, events in history conspired in creating a bipolar world comprising of two superpowers competing on global governance structure (Segal 366). For instance, after President Truman informed the new responsibilities by America to the Joint Congress in 1947, the Soviets undermined the agreements. Currently, each nation has its own way of life, with the choices being free for anyone. Among the different preferences lie in freedom of religion and speech, free elections and free institutions among others. Remarkably, in a very short timeframe, the foreign policy in US and the world politics pivoted to internationalism from the isolationism if not interventionism. The U.S. was prompted to increase its massive military to survive the effects of WWII. As a result, there was intervention in US troops to take the forward positions in projecting the US power as well as deterring

The Ugly American Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Ugly American - Essay Example policymakers, journalists, and officers made leading to the loss of Sarkhan to the Communists knowing that Sarkhan has border difficulty with the Communist country to the north. Lederer and Burdick The Ugly American, set in the mythical southeast Asian nation of Sarkhan, is a critique of U.S. foreign policy. Lederer and Burdick point to the willful ignorance, careerist self-interest, and cultural arrogance that confound American efforts to close down the spread of communism. Their novel, essentially a series of loosely linked vignettes relating to the actions of foreign service officials, is meant as a counteractive to many harsh assessment. Even though liberal and unsparing in their representation of administrative incompetence and bureaucratic inertia, Lederer and Burdick appear oblivious of the use of terror by U.S. agents. They attribute the failure of U.S. policy to the lack of ability to distinguish the competent deception of communists, a refusal to learn native languages and customs, a lack of enthusiasm to leave the comforts of the capital city and its American enclave, a preoccupation with diplomatic social life, and an overriding anxiety with lar ge-scale, capital-intensive projects rather than with less significant innovations more likely to develop the daily lives of the native population. On the other hand, communist success is attributed to the careful training of its diplomats, their enthusiasm to respect native language and customs, and their capability to sarcastically prey upon natives' mistaken resentment. Consequently, the communists are on the threshold of world power and domination. As one Sarkhanese states, "America had its chance and it missed. And now the Communists are going to win" (Neilson p. 24). Or as a fictional U.S. senator declares, "we're facing the final crisis with Russia . . . the next few years will decide whether we're going to win or lose" (p. 242). This paranoia about the imagined abilities of communists is seen in the imaginary timetables by which they are said to plot world domination. The Senator in The Ugly American glimpses the fate of the world being determined in the next few years; Soviet agents in The Ugly American plan "to bring [Burma] within the Communist orbit within 30 months" (p. 35), and, according to Time, Anthony Eden's m ilitary advisors estimated in 1956 that by 1961 the communists would be ready to endeavor violent global conquest. Despite the fact that their basic thesis is that the United States needs more competent foreign service officers, Lederer and Burdick also give specific examples of policies and programs the United States might adopt that might make a difference in the struggle against communist hegemony: providing Asians with powdered milk to accustom them to fresh milk, which is alien to their diets, so they can begin raising dairy cows; broadcasting surreptitiously taped conversations of Russian field operatives telling their local agents not to "talk about 'socialist ownership of lands' " because that "only scares the peasants. Peasants are backward types" (Neilson p. 63); constructing simple water pumps run by bicycles, without exporting technology or giving aid money, since "Whenever you give a man something for nothing the first person he comes to dislike is you" (p. 216); or teaching Asians to construct and use long-handled brooms (rather than the traditional

Is there an inverse relationship between inflation and unemployment ( Essay

Is there an inverse relationship between inflation and unemployment ( Phillips Curve). Do unemployment rates give a realistic picture of differences in economic activity in Britain and Europe - Essay Example From the Philips curve therefore it is apparent that inflation and unemployment share an inverse relationship where inflation rises with the reduction of unemployment and vice versa (Gordon 2011). From the diagram, when the unemployment rate is 4% the inflation rate is 7% and when the unemployment rate is 6% the inflation rate is 3%. The diagram clearly shows that when the rate of unemployment is higher (6%) the rate of inflation is lower (3%) that when the unemployment rate low (4%) which results in a higher inflation rate (7%). Unemployment rates provide a realistic picture of the differences in economic activity in Britain and Europe. The difference between the economic activities in Britain and Europe can be attributed to the rates of unemployment. The unemployment rates in Britain are lower that the unemployment rate in Europe and the rate of economic activity in Britain are higher than that in Europe. The high number of employed individual’s in Britain economy increases the overall spending in the economy and subsequently the general economic activity of the country is increased. Reduction of the rates of unemployment increase expenditure within an economy and results in improved economic activities (Jovanovic & Jovanović

The Ugly American Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Ugly American - Essay Example policymakers, journalists, and officers made leading to the loss of Sarkhan to the Communists knowing that Sarkhan has border difficulty with the Communist country to the north. Lederer and Burdick The Ugly American, set in the mythical southeast Asian nation of Sarkhan, is a critique of U.S. foreign policy. Lederer and Burdick point to the willful ignorance, careerist self-interest, and cultural arrogance that confound American efforts to close down the spread of communism. Their novel, essentially a series of loosely linked vignettes relating to the actions of foreign service officials, is meant as a counteractive to many harsh assessment. Even though liberal and unsparing in their representation of administrative incompetence and bureaucratic inertia, Lederer and Burdick appear oblivious of the use of terror by U.S. agents. They attribute the failure of U.S. policy to the lack of ability to distinguish the competent deception of communists, a refusal to learn native languages and customs, a lack of enthusiasm to leave the comforts of the capital city and its American enclave, a preoccupation with diplomatic social life, and an overriding anxiety with lar ge-scale, capital-intensive projects rather than with less significant innovations more likely to develop the daily lives of the native population. On the other hand, communist success is attributed to the careful training of its diplomats, their enthusiasm to respect native language and customs, and their capability to sarcastically prey upon natives' mistaken resentment. Consequently, the communists are on the threshold of world power and domination. As one Sarkhanese states, "America had its chance and it missed. And now the Communists are going to win" (Neilson p. 24). Or as a fictional U.S. senator declares, "we're facing the final crisis with Russia . . . the next few years will decide whether we're going to win or lose" (p. 242). This paranoia about the imagined abilities of communists is seen in the imaginary timetables by which they are said to plot world domination. The Senator in The Ugly American glimpses the fate of the world being determined in the next few years; Soviet agents in The Ugly American plan "to bring [Burma] within the Communist orbit within 30 months" (p. 35), and, according to Time, Anthony Eden's m ilitary advisors estimated in 1956 that by 1961 the communists would be ready to endeavor violent global conquest. Despite the fact that their basic thesis is that the United States needs more competent foreign service officers, Lederer and Burdick also give specific examples of policies and programs the United States might adopt that might make a difference in the struggle against communist hegemony: providing Asians with powdered milk to accustom them to fresh milk, which is alien to their diets, so they can begin raising dairy cows; broadcasting surreptitiously taped conversations of Russian field operatives telling their local agents not to "talk about 'socialist ownership of lands' " because that "only scares the peasants. Peasants are backward types" (Neilson p. 63); constructing simple water pumps run by bicycles, without exporting technology or giving aid money, since "Whenever you give a man something for nothing the first person he comes to dislike is you" (p. 216); or teaching Asians to construct and use long-handled brooms (rather than the traditional

Religion, Spirituality, and Health Status in Geriatric Outpatients Essay Example for Free

Religion, Spirituality, and Health Status in Geriatric Outpatients Essay Daaleman, Perrera and Studenski wished to re-examine the effect of religiosity and spirituality on perceptions of older persons, operationalized as geriatric outpatients. The authors proceeded from two conceptual constructs.   The first is that self-reported health status is central to aging research.   The old know whereof they speak.   Self-ratings are valid because they correlate well with health status over time and, consequently, health service utilization.   The second construct is that, no matter how morally they lived as young adults, those in late middle age come to embrace religion and spirituality with more fervor. Prior research had scrutinized the relationship between religion and health perceptions.   Some results were inconclusive, an outcome that the authors attributed to failure to control for such covariates as spirituality. Definitions vary, the authors acknowledged, but they proposed defining â€Å"religiosity† as principally revolving on organized faith while â€Å"spirituality† has more to do with giving humans â€Å"meaning, purpose, or power either from within or from a transcendent source.†Ã‚   In turn, the dependent variable was measured by a single-item global health from the Years of Healthy Life (YOHL) scale, a self-assessment of general health (would you say your health in general is †¦) and a 5-item Likert response from excellent to poor. Fieldwork consisted of including a 5-item measure of religiosity15 and a 12-item spirituality instrument in a 36-month health service utilization, health status, and functional status study among 492 outpatients of a VA and HMO network, all residents of the Kansas City metropolitan area. The authors were remiss in not formally articulating their hypotheses for the study though one gleans that the alternative hypothesis could have stated, â€Å"Structured religion, a deep sense of spirituality, mental status and mobility, and personal and demographic variables materially influence measures of health status and physical functioning.† In the end, the data was subjected to univariate and multivariate best-fit statistics.   The key findings: Table 2. Predictors of Self-Reported Good Health Status (N = 277) Factor* Unadjusted OR (95% CL Adjusted OR (95% CI) Age 0.94 (0.89–0.99)†  Male 0.72 (0.41–1.25)†¡ White race 2.79 (1.51–5.17) § 3.32 (1.33–8.30) ¶ Grade school 0.1 (0.02–0.49) ¶ Some high school 0.28 (0.06–1.44)†¡ High school graduate 0.24 (0.05–1.14)†¡ Technical/business school 0.29 (0.06–1.43)†¡ Some college 0.31 (0.06–1.49)†¡ Not depressed (GDS) 32.4 (4.03–261) § Physical functioning(SF36-PFI) 1.04 (1.03–1.05) § 1.03 (1.01–1.04) § Quality of life (EuroQol) 1.69 (1.41–2.01)†  1.36 (1.09–1.70)†  Religiosity (NORC) 0.93 (0.85–1.02)†¡ Spirituality (SIWB) 1.15 (1.10–1.21) § 1.09 (1.02–1.16)†  OR = odds ratio; CI = confi dence interval; GDS = Geriatric Depression Scale; SF36-PFI = Physical Functioning Index from SF-36; NORC = National Opinion Research Center; SIWB = Spirituality Index of Well-Being. *Referent factors: age-1 year younger; female, nonwhite; college graduate; GDS score of 0-9; PFI-index of 1 less; EuroQol-score of 0.1 less; SIWB-score of 1 less. †  P = .01. †¡ P = NS.  § P .01.  ¶ P .05. After adjusting for all covariates, the authors tentatively concluded that spirituality was an important explanatory factor for perceptions of one’s own physical well-being.   That religiosity did not seem statistically relevant, the authors concede, could be due to having defined the variable partly as attendance at religious services, a behavior possible only if the patient was functional and ambulant.   Still, the authors argue, they did include other measures of religiosity and the regression model did hold being functional constant. While the study did establish a relationship between self-perceptions of health and spirituality, the authors themselves point out the possibility that the two variables are not independent.   The conceptual framework of the SIWB spirituality measure includes a â€Å"high degree of positive intentionality†, which strikes one as very similar to health optimism as independent variable. Article 2: Religious coping and psychological functioning in a correctional population Lonczak, Clifasefi1, Marlatt, Blume, . Donovan tested the relationship among religious upbringing, coping and mental health outcomes in the admittedly-stressful prison environment. This time, the authors do not mince words.   They preface the literature review with the majority’s belief in God (or some higher being) as the core aspect of religiosity.   Second, they point out that two separate meta-analysis carried out in 1983 and 2003 showed mixed results for a relationship between religiosity and coping.   Perhaps, they argue, this is because religious coping has negative-coping aspects, such as the conviction that all one’s troubles are due to abandonment by God. Since a search of the literature had revealed only one study concerning prisoners – the positive effect of meditation on recidivism psychological symptoms in India – Lonczak et al. thought to embark on this study of a neglected population.   Secondly, the authors hoped to advance theory by defining religious coping more specifically than had ever been done. There were multiple hypotheses attending this study: That the high degree of stress experienced by prisoners triggers an increase in religious coping behaviors (e.g., prayer, reading, spirituality, attendance in religious activities, etc.). That the positive coping encouraged by religiosity brings about comfort and solace and hence increases the likelihood of adaptive outcomes. That a religious upbringing provides individuals a repertoire of positive coping behaviors from which to draw strength. Coming to data processing and statistical â€Å"tests†, Longczak et al. employed principal component analyses using Varimax rotation.   The result was a four-factor model with their respective Cronbach alpha reliability estimates: Spirituality (0.97); â€Å"Good deeds† and active participation in coping related activities (0.89); Pleading (0.83); and, Discontentment (0.74). In addition, the researchers administered the Brief Symptom Inventory to measure four dimensions: depression, anxiety, somatization and hostility. At the first stage of analysis, relationships between religiosity on one hand and either gender or ethnic group on the other were tested for in bivariate correlations, t-tests, ANOVAs, or chi square tests. Subsequently analyses involved four hierarchical linear regressions (one for each outcome) including both gender and stressful life events by each of the five religion measures.   In order to examine the relationships between religion-focused predictors and outcomes with and without separate statistical adjustment for sociodemographic variables, variables were processed in a given sequence (below) and non-significant terms removed from later analyses. Religious upbringing, participation, spirituality, pleading and discontentment in the first block; Gender, ethnic group, age, education, and stressful life events in the second block; and, Interaction terms in the third and fourth blocks. The findings provided support for the hypothesis that an upbringing characterized by formal or structured religion has positive mental health ramifications, including less depression and hostility.   Secondly, women are more adversely affected by discontentment-based coping.   Religious pleading notwithstanding, thirdly, prisoners who had experienced stressful life events were more likely to evince depression and hostility. Article #4: Effect of religion on suicide attempts in outpatients with schizophrenia or schizo-affective disorders compared with inpatients with non-psychotic disorders Huguelet et al. also focused on religion, this time in relation to psychosis and, specifically the propensity to suicide. Among the 115 patients with schizophrenia or schizo-affective disorders covered by the study, 43% had previously attempted suicide.   Broadly speaking, the team wished to find out whether religion was a protective or impelling factor in these suicide attempts. Suicide deserves attention, the authors maintained, because over 9 in 10 suicides are accompanied by a diagnosis of psychiatric illness.   Over the lifetime of a schizophrenic, in particular, meta-analysis has shown a 0.049 probability of death by suicide. Given the importance of reducing suicidal behavior, it seemed encouraging that spirituality and religious activities had ameliorate the risk.   Prior research on piety and spirituality had suggested that the coping mechanisms could involve both a more positive world view and a shield against stress. HYPOTHESIS AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: No relationship could be found for religiousness and the tendency to attempt suicide.   Twenty-five percent of all the study subjects acknowledged that religion inhibited them from considering suicide versus only one in ten that articulated an â€Å"incentive† role for religion. Overview of Findings The four articles explored different facets of spirituality and religiosity.   Daaleman, Perrera and Studenski related spirituality to health perceptions.   Lonczak et al.turned their attention to whether a religious upbringing helped adults cope better with a stressful environment, imprisonment in this case.   In the case of Huguelet et al., the question was whether present religious beliefs encouraged suicide or strengthened coping mechanisms for resisting self-destructive compulsions. After adjusting for all covariates, Daaleman, Perrera and Studenski tentatively concluded that spirituality was an important explanatory factor for perceptions of one’s own physical well-being.   Religiosity was not a factor, for reasons already explained.   One doubts this will be the last word on the matter, however, since the study lacked rigor. Nonetheless, the finding about spirituality is helpful given that therapy is a way of expanding awareness and identity.   As well, Transactional Analysis â€Å"recognizes the spiritual dimension of each person as an important part of the therapeutic process† (Trautman, 2003).   On the other hand, one realizes the limitations of analyzing spirituality vis-à  -vis health perception when the two variables overlap, at least on the aspect of optimism. One is therefore led to wonder, might it not advance therapy theory and praxis if: a) Spirituality and religiosity were qualitatively tested as a compound, unified variable; and, b) Health-related research include objective measures of well-being as the realistic dependent variable? For Lonczak et al. the implications for counseling have more to do with discontent and religious pleading. Counseling might address the roots and implications of religious distress and assist patients in developing more adaptive coping strategies.   Notwithstanding the focus on a tightly defined population segment (older adults jailed for alcohol- and drug-related offenses), the authors are correct to point out the immense social good clinicians and prison administrators could foster if low-cost religious or spirituality-enhancing programs did contribute to â€Å"significant reductions in behavior management problems, psychological impairment, and subsequent recidivism.† Similarly, the findings of Huguelet et al. suggest that suicide rates among psychotic patients could well be reduced if therapy embraced reinforcement or revival of religious beliefs.   References Trautmann, R. (2003) Psychotherapy and spirituality. Transactional Analysis Journal, 33, (1) 32-36.